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RETIS – Real-Time Sensitive Wireless Communication Solution for Industrial Control Applications
(2020)
Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communications (URLLC) has been always a vital component of many industrial applications. The paper proposes a new wireless URLLC solution called RETIS, which is suitable for factory automation and fast process control applications, where low latency, low jitter, and high data exchange rates are mandatory. In the paper, we describe the communication protocol as well as the hardware structure of the network nodes for implementing the required functionality. Many techniques enabling fast, reliable wireless transmissions are used – short Transmission Time Interval (TTI), Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA), MIMO, optional duplicated data transfer, Forward Error Correction (FEC), ACK mechanism. Preliminary tests show that reliable end-to-end latency down to 350 μs and packet exchange rate up to 4 kHz can be reached (using quadruple MIMO and standard IEEE 802.15.4 PHY at 250 kbit/s).
Novel manufacturing technologies, such as printed electronics, may enable future applications for the Internet of Everything like large-area sensor devices, disposable security, and identification tags. Printed physically unclonable functions (PUFs) are promising candidates to be embedded as hardware security keys into lightweight identification devices. We investigate hybrid PUFs based on a printed PUF core. The statistics on the intra- and inter-hamming distance distributions indicate a performance suitable for identification purposes. Our evaluations are based on statistical simulations of the PUF core circuit and the thereof generated challenge-response pairs. The analysis shows that hardware-intrinsic security features can be realized with printed lightweight devices.
Uncontrollable manufacturing variations in electrical hardware circuits can be exploited as Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs). Herein, we present a Printed Electronics (PE)-based PUF system architecture. Our proposed Differential Circuit PUF (DiffC-PUF) is a hybrid system, combining silicon-based and PE-based electronic circuits. The novel approach of the DiffC-PUF architecture is to provide a specially designed real hardware system architecture, that enables the automatic readout of interchangeable printed DiffC-PUF core circuits. The silicon-based addressing and evaluation circuit supplies and controls the printed PUF core and ensures seamless integration into silicon-based smart systems. Major objectives of our work are interconnected applications for the Internet of Things (IoT).
Remote code attestation protocols are an essential building block to offer a reasonable system security for wireless embedded devices. In the work at hand we investigate in detail the trustability of a purely software-based remote code attestation based inference mechanism over the wireless when e.g. running the prominent protocol derivate SoftWare-based ATTestation for Embedded Devices (SWATT). Besides the disclosure of pitfalls of such a protocol class we also point out good parameter choices which allow at least a meaningful plausibility check with a balanced false positive and false negative ratio.
Covert- and side-channels as well as techniques to establish them in cloud computing are in focus of research for quite some time. However, not many concrete mitigation methods have been developed and even less have been adapted and concretely implemented by cloud providers. Thus, we recently conceptually proposed C 3 -Sched a CPU scheduling based approach to mitigate L2 cache covert-channels. Instead of flushing the cache on every context switch, we schedule trusted virtual machines to create noise which prevents potential covert-channels. Additionally, our approach aims on preserving performance by utilizing existing instead of artificial workload while reducing covert-channel related cache flushes to cases where not enough noise has been achieved. In this work we evaluate cache covert-channel mitigation and performance impact of our integration of C 3 -Sched in the XEN credit scheduler. Moreover, we compare it to naive solutions and more competitive approaches.
The development of Internet of Things (IoT) embedded devices is proliferating, especially in the smart home automation system. However, the devices unfortunately are imposing overhead on the IoT network. Thus, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) have introduced the IPv6 Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Network (6LoWPAN) to provide a solution to this constraint. 6LoWPAN is an Internet Protocol (IP) based communication where it allows each device to connect to the Internet directly. As a result, the power consumption is reduced. However, the limitation of data transmission frame size of the IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-power and Lossy Network’s (RPL’s) had made it to be the running overhead, and thus consequently degrades the performance of the network in terms of Quality of Service (QoS), especially in a large network. Therefore, HRPL was developed to enhance the RPL protocol to minimize redundant retransmission that causes the routing overhead. We introduced the T-Cut Off Delay to set the limit of the delay and the H field to respond to actions taken within the T-Cut Off Delay. Thus, this paper presents the comparison performance assessment of HRPL between simulation and real-world scenarios (6LoWPAN Smart Home System (6LoSH) testbed) in validating the HRPL functionalities. Our results show that HRPL had successfully reduced the routing overhead when implemented in 6LoSH. The observed Control Traffic Overhead (CTO) packet difference between each experiment is 7.1%, and the convergence time is 9.3%. Further research is recommended to be conducted for these metrics: latency, Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), and throughput.
The Internet of Things (IoT) application has becoming progressively in-demand, most notably for the embedded devices (ED). However, each device has its own difference in computational capabilities, memory usage, and energy resources in connecting to the Internet by using Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). In order for this to be achievable, the WSNs that form the bulk of the IoT implementation requires a new set of technologies and protocol that would have a defined area, in which it addresses. Thus, IPv6 Low Power Area Network (6LoWPAN) was designed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as a standard network for ED. Nevertheless, the communication between ED and 6LoWPAN requires appropriate routing protocols for it to achieve the efficient Quality of Service (QoS). Among the protocols of 6LoWPAN network, RPL is considered to be the best protocol, however its Energy Consumption (EC) and Routing Overhead (RO) is considerably high when it is implemented in a large network. Therefore, this paper would propose the HRPL to enchance the RPL protocol in reducing the EC and RO. In this study, the researchers would present the performance of RPL and HRPL in terms of EC, Control traffic Overhead (CTO) and latency based on the simulation of the 6LoWPAN network in fixed environment using COOJA simulator. The results show HRPL protocol achieves better performance in all the tested topology in terms of EC and CTO. However, the latency of HRPL only improves in chain topology compared with RPL. We found that further research is required to study the relationship between the latency and the load of packet transmission in order to optimize the EC usage.
In the last decade, IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks (IEEE802.15.4), also known as 6LoWPAN, has well evolved as a primary contender for short range wireless communications and holds the promise of an Internet of Things, which is completely based on the Internet Protocol. The authors' team has developed a 6LoWPAN protocol stack in C language, the stack without the necessity to use a specific design environment or operating system. It is highly flexible, modular, and portable and can be enhanced by several interesting modules, like a Wake-On-Radio-(WOR) MAC layer or a TLS1.2 based security sublayer. The stack is made available as open source at https://github.com/hso-esk/emb6. It was extensively tested on the Automated Physical Testbed (APTB) for Wireless Systems, which is available in the authors' lab and allows a flexible setup and full control of arbitrary topologies. The results of the measurements demonstrate a very good stability and short-term with long-term performance also under dynamic conditions.
Wireless communication systems more and more become part of our daily live. Especially with the Internet of Things (IoT) the overall connectivity increases rapidly since everyday objects become part of the global network. For this purpose several new wireless protocols have arisen, whereas 6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks) can be seen as one of the most important protocols within this sector. Originally designed on top of the IEEE802.15.4 standard it is a subject to various adaptions that will allow to use 6LoWPAN over different technologies; e.g. DECT Ultra Low Energy (ULE). Although this high connectivity offers a lot of new possibilities, there are several requirements and pitfalls coming along with such new systems. With an increasing number of connected devices the interoperability between different providers is one of the biggest challenges, which makes it necessary to verify the functionality and stability of the devices and the network. Therefore testing becomes one of the key components that decides on success or failure of such a system. Although there are several protocol implementations commonly available; e.g., for IoT based systems, there is still a lack of according tools and environments as well as for functional and conformance testing. This article describes the architecture and functioning of the proposed test framework based on Testing and Test Control Notation Version 3 (TTCN-3) for 6LoWPAN over ULE networks.
Extended Performance Measurements of Scalable 6LoWPAN Networks in an Automated Physical Testbed
(2015)
IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks, also known as 6LoWPAN, is becoming more and more a de facto standard for such communications for the Internet of Things, be it in the field of home and building automation, of industrial and process automation, or of smart metering and environmental monitoring. For all of these applications, scalability is a major precondition, as the complexity of the networks continuously increase. To maintain this growing amount of connected nodes a various 6LoWPAN implementations are available. One of the mentioned was developed by the authors' team and was tested on an Automated Physical Testbed for Wireless Systems at the Laboratory Embedded Systems and Communication Electronics of Offenburg University of Applied Sciences, which allows the flexible setup and full control of arbitrary topologies. It also supports time-varying topologies and thus helps to measure performance of the RPL implementation. The results of the measurements prove an excellent stability and a very good short and long-term performance also under dynamic conditions. In all measurements, there is an advantage of minimum 10% with regard to the average times, like global repair time; but the advantage with reagr to average values can reach up to 30%. Moreover, it can be proven that the performance predictions from other papers are consistent with the executed real-life implementations.
In the last decade, IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks, also known as 6LoWPAN, has well evolved as a primary contender for short range wireless communication and holds the promise of an Internet of Things, which is completely based on the Internet Protocol. In the meantime, various 6LoWPAN implementations are available, be it open source or commercial. One of these implementations, which was developed by the authors' team, was tested on an Automated Physical Testbed for Wireless Systems at the Laboratory Embedded Systems and Communication Electronics of Offenburg University of Applied Sciences, which allows the flexible setup and full control of arbitrary topologies. It also supports time-varying topologies and thus helps to measure performance of the RPL implementation. The results of the measurements show a very good stability and short-term and long-term performance also under dynamic conditions. In addition, it can be proven that the performance predictions from other papers are consistent with real-life implementations.
The CAN bus still is an important fieldbus in various domains, e.g. for in-car communication or automation applications. To counter security threats and concerns in such scenarios we design, implement, and evaluate the use of an end-to-end security concept based on the Transport Layer Security protocol. It is used to establish authenticated, integrity-checked, and confidential communication channels between field devices connected via CAN. Our performance measurements show that it is possible to use TLS at least for non time-critical applications, as well as for generic embedded networks.
IPv6 over LoRaWAN™
(2016)
Although short-range wireless communication explicitly targets local and regional applications, range continues to be a highly important issue. The range directly depends on the so-called link budget, which can be increased by the choice of modulation and coding schemes. The recent transceiver generation in particular comes with extensive and flexible support for software-defined radio (SDR). The SX127× family from Semtech Corp. is a member of this device class and promises significant benefits for range, robust performance, and battery lifetime compared to competing technologies. This contribution gives a short overview of the technologies to support Long Range (LoRa™) and the corresponding Layer 2 protocol (LoRaWAN™). It particularly describes the possibility to combine the Internet Protocol, i.e. IPv6, into LoRaWAN™, so that it can be directly integrated into a full-fledged Internet of Things (IoT). The proposed solution, which we name 6LoRaWAN, has been implemented and tested; results of the experiments are also shown in this paper.
The Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol is a cornerstone of secure network communication, not only for online banking, e-commerce, and social media, but also for industrial communication and cyber-physical systems. Unfortunately, implementing TLS correctly is very challenging, as becomes evident by considering the high frequency of bugfixes filed for many TLS implementations. Given the high significance of TLS, advancing the quality of implementations is a sustained pursuit. We strive to support these efforts by presenting a novel, response-distribution guided fuzzing algorithm for differential testing of black-box TLS implementations. Our algorithm generates highly diverse and mostly-valid TLS stimulation messages, which evoke more behavioral discrepancies in TLS server implementations than other algorithms. We evaluate our algorithm using 37 different TLS implementations and discuss―by means of a case study―how the resulting data allows to assess and improve not only implementations of TLS but also to identify underspecified corner cases. We introduce suspiciousness as a per-implementation metric of anomalous implementation behavior and find that more recent or bug-fixed implementations tend to have a lower suspiciousness score. Our contribution is complementary to existing tools and approaches in the area, and can help reveal implementation flaws and avoid regression. While being presented for TLS, we expect our algorithm's guidance scheme to be applicable and useful also in other contexts. Source code and data is made available for fellow researchers in order to stimulate discussions and invite others to benefit from and advance our work.
PROFINET Security: A Look on Selected Concepts for Secure Communication in the Automation Domain
(2023)
We provide a brief overview of the cryptographic security extensions for PROFINET, as defined and specified by PROFIBUS & PROFINET International (PI). These come in three hierarchically defined Security Classes, called Security Class 1,2 and 3. Security Class 1 provides basic security improvements with moderate implementation impact on PROFINET components. Security Classes 2 and 3, in contrast, introduce an integrated cryptographic protection of PROFINET communication. We first highlight and discuss the security features that the PROFINET specification offers for future PROFINET products. Then, as our main focus, we take a closer look at some of the technical challenges that were faced during the conceptualization and design of Security Class 2 and 3 features. In particular, we elaborate on how secure application relations between PROFINET components are established and how a disruption-free availability of a secure communication channel is guaranteed despite the need to refresh cryptographic keys regularly. The authors are members of the PI Working Group CB/PG10 Security.
The Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) protocol has been designed to provide end-to-end security over unreliable communication links. Where its connection establishment is concerned, DTLS copes with potential loss of protocol messages by implementing its own loss detection and retransmission scheme. However, the default scheme turns out to be suboptimal for links with high transmission error rates and low data rates, such as wireless links in electromagnetically harsh industrial environments. Therefore, in this paper, as a first step we provide an analysis of the standard DTLS handshake's performance under such adverse transmission conditions. Our studies are based on simulations that model message loss as the result of bit transmission errors. We consider several handshake variants, including endpoint authentication via pre-shared keys or certificates. As a second step, we propose and evaluate modifications to the way message loss is dealt with during the handshake, making DTLS deployable in situations which are prohibitive for default DTLS.
When designing and installing Indoor Positioning Systems, several interrelated tasks have to be solved to find an optimum placement of the Access Points. For this purpose, a mathematical model for a predefined number of access points indoors is presented. Two iterative algorithms for the minimization of localization error of a mobile object are described. Both algorithms use local search technique and signal level probabilities. Previously registered signal strengths maps were used in computer simulation.
Due to its numerous application fields and benefits, virtualization has become an interesting and attractive topic in computer and mobile systems, as it promises advantages for security and cost efficiency. However, it may bring additional performance overhead. Recently, CPU virtualization has become more popular for embedded platforms, where the performance overhead is especially critical. In this article, we present the measurements of the performance overhead of the two hypervisors Xen and Jailhouse on ARM processors in the context of the heavy load “Cpuburn-a8” application and compare it to a native Linux system running on ARM processors.