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The invention concerns a method for spectrum monitoring a given frequency band, in which the spectral power density (S(f)) within the given frequency band is determined for all noise and signal components in the frequency band and, in order to detect the presence of one or more signals within the given frequency band, it is evaluated whether the spectral power density (S(f)) exceeds a threshold value (&lgr;). According to the invention, the threshold value (&lgr;) is calculated in accordance with an estimation of a distribution density (hR(S)) for the noise component of the spectral power density (S(f)) within the given frequency band and in accordance with a predefined value for the false-alarm probability (Pfa).
Monitoring of the molecular structure of lubricant oil using a FT-Raman spectrometer prototype
(2014)
The determination of the physical state of the lubricant materials in complex mechanical systems is highly critical from different points of view: operative, economical, environmental, etc. Furthermore, there are several parameters that a lubricant oil must meet for a proper performance inside a machine. The monitoring of these lubricants can represent a serious issue depending on the analytical approach applied. The molecular change of aging lubricant oils have been analyzed using an all-standard-components and self-designed FT-Raman spectrometer. This analytical tool allows the direct and clean study of the vibrational changes in the molecular structure of the oils without having direct contact with the samples and without extracting the sample from the machine in operation. The FT-Raman spectrometer prototype used in the analysis of the oil samples consist of a Michelson interferometer and a self-designed photon counter cooled down on a Peltier element arrangement. The light coupling has been accomplished by using a conventional 62.5/125μm multi-mode fiber coupler. The FT-Raman arrangement has been able to extract high resolution and frequency precise Raman spectra, comparable to those obtained with commercial FT-Raman systems, from the lubricant oil samples analyzed. The spectral information has helped to determine certain molecular changes in the initial phases of wearing of the oil samples. The proposed instrument prototype has no additional complex hardware components or costly software modules. The mechanical and thermal irregularities influencing the FT-Raman spectrometer have been removed mathematically by accurately evaluating the optical path difference of the Michelson interferometer. This has been achieved by producing an additional interference pattern signal with a λ= 632.8 nm helium-neon laser, which differs from the conventional zero-crossing sampling (also known as Connes advantage) commonly used by FT-devices. It enables the FT-Raman system to perform reliable and clean spectral measurements from the analyzed oil samples.
Das Standardlehrbuch zum internationalen Steuerrecht
Kenntnisse im internationalen Steuerrecht werden in der steuerlichen Ausbildung immer wichtiger. Mit dem „Wilke“ sichern Sie sich einen umfassenden und fundierten Einstieg in diese komplexe Materie. Leicht verständlich und anschaulich vermittelt dieses Standardlehrbuch Ihnen alle relevanten Grundlagen des internationalen Steuerrechts.
Der Aufbau des Buchs orientiert sich dabei sowohl an den Bedürfnissen der Ausbildung als auch denen der Praxis. Als idealer Begleiter unterstützt es Sie in jeder Phase Ihrer beruflichen Entwicklung – von den ersten Schritten in der Steuerberater-Ausbildung bis hin zur erfolgreich abgeschlossenen Weiterbildung zum Fachberater für Internationales Steuerrecht.
Die 15. Auflage berücksichtigt die Entwicklung auf dem Gebiet des internationalen Steuerrechts in Gesetzgebung, Rechtsprechung, Literatur und Verwaltung bis Ende März 2020.
Rechtsstand: 1.4.2020
The combination of fossil-derived fuels with ethanol and methanol has acquired relevance and attention in several countries in recent years. This trend is strongly affected by market prices, constant geopolitical events, new sustainability policies, new laws and regulations, etc. Besides bio-fuels these materials also include different additives as anti-shock agents and as octane enhancer. Some of the chemical compounds in these additives may have harmful properties for both environment and public health (besides the inherent properties, like volatility). We present detailed Raman spectral information from toluene (C7H8) and ethanol (C2H6O) contained in samples of ElO gasoline-ethanol blends. The spectral information has been extracted by using a robust, high resolution Fourier-Transform Raman spectrometer (FT-Raman) prototype. This spectral information has been also compared with Raman spectra from pure additives and with standard Raman lines in order to validate its accuracy in frequency. The spectral information is presented in the range of 0 cm-1 to 3500 cm-1 with a resolution of 1.66cm-1. This allows resolving tight adjacent Raman lines like the ones observed around 1003cm-1 and 1030cm-1 (characteristic lines of toluene). The Raman spectra obtained show a reduced frequency deviation when compared to standard Raman spectra from different calibration materials. The FT-Raman spectrometer prototype used for the analysis consist basically of a Michelson interferometer and a self-designed photon counter cooled down on a Peltier element arrangement. The light coupling is achieved with conventional62.5/125μm multi-mode fibers. This FT-Raman setup is able to extract high resolution and frequency precise Raman spectra from the additives in the fuels analyzed. The proposed prototype has no additional complex hardware components or costly software modules. The mechanical and thermal disturbances affecting the FT-Raman system are mathematically compensated by accurately extracting the optical path information of the Michelson interferometer. This is accomplished by generating an additional interference pattern with a λ = 632.8 nm Helium-Neon laser (HeNe laser). It enables the FT-Raman system to perform reliable and clean spectral measurements from the materials under observation.
Besonderes Außensteuerrecht
(2014)
We report the use of the Raman spectral information of the chemical compound toluene C7H8 as a reference on the analysis of laboratory-prepared and commercially acquired gasoline-ethanol blends. The rate behavior of the characteristic Raman lines of toluene and gasoline has enabled the approximated quantification of this additive in commercial gasoline-ethanol mixtures. This rate behavior has been obtained from the Raman spectra of gasoline-ethanol blends with different proportions of toluene.
All these Raman spectra have been collected by using a self-designed, frequency precise and low-cost Fourier-transform Raman spectrometer (FT-Raman spectrometer) prototype. This FT-Raman prototype has helped to accurately confirm the frequency position of the main characteristic Raman lines of toluene present on the different gasoline-ethanol samples analyzed at smaller proportions than those commonly found in commercial gasoline-ethanol blends. The frequency accuracy validation has been performed by analyzing the same set of toluene samples with two additional state-of-the-art commercial FT-Raman devices. Additionally, the spectral information has been contrasted, with highly-correlated coefficients as a result, with the values of the standard Raman spectrum of toluene.
La industria del bacanora en Sonora, México, enfrenta la influencia de una compleja red de factores culturales, tecnológicos, económicos y legales que inhiben su desarrollo. Ello ocurre pese al esfuerzo institucional por radicar un marco normativo que elimine la práctica de los métodos informales de elaboración que derivan en calidades heterogéneas de licor. El conseguirlo se complica ante la dificultad que enfrentan los actores de esta industria para implementar prácticas efectivas de verificación de las normas vigentes en los confines de la geografía de la Denominación de Origen. En este documento se describe el uso de un prototipo de espectrómetro Raman por transformada de Fourier para analizar cualitativamente muestras desconocidas de bacanora. Este dispositivo se construyó con el uso de un interferómetro Michelson convencional, un contador de fotones de diseño propio y un foto-detector de referencia. Los resultados del trabajo confirman que dada su naturaleza de diseño y construcción, este instrumento de medición y su efectiva técnica de operación a bajo costo, constituye una alternativa viable, adaptable fácilmente a las necesidades de los actores productivos e institucionales, para asistirlos en la elaboración de bacanora y a la verificación de su calidad conforme a los criterios de la normatividad.
The Raman spectra from the chemical compounds toluene and cyclohexane obtained using a Fourier Transform (FT)-Raman spectrometer prototype have been contrasted with the Raman spectra of these same materials collected with two different commercial FT-Raman devices. The FT-Raman spectrometer consist of a Michelson interferometer, a self-designed photon counter and a reference photo-detector. The evaluation methodology of the spectral information, contrary to the commercial devices that commonly use the zero-crossing method, is carried out by re-sampling the Raman scattering and by accurately extracting the optical path information of the Michelson interferometer. The FTRaman arrangement has been built using conventional parts without disregarding the spectral frequency precision that usually such a FTRaman instruments deliver. No additional complex hardware components or costly software modules have been included in this FT-Raman device. The main Raman lines from the spectra obtained with the three FT-Raman devices have been compared with the Raman lines from the standard Raman spectra of these two materials. The values obtained using the FT-Raman spectrometer prototype have shown a frequency accuracy comparable to that obtained with the commercial devices without facing the need for a large investment. Although the proposed FT-Raman prototype cannot be directly compared to the last generation of FT-Raman spectrometers from the commercial manufacturers, such a device could give an opportunity to users that require high frequency precision in their spectral analysis and are provided with rather scarce resources.
Signal detection and bandwidth estimation, also known as channel segmentation or information channel estimation, is a perpetual topic in communication systems. In the field of radio monitoring this issue is extremely challenging, since unforeseeable effects like fading occur accidentally. In addition, most radio monitoring devices normally scan a wide frequency range of several hundred MHz and have to detect a multitude of different signals, varying in signal power, bandwidth and spectral shape. Since narrowband sensing techniques cannot be directly applied, most radio monitoring devices use Nyquist wideband sensing to discover the huge frequency range. In practice, sensing is normally conducted by an FFT sweep spectrum analyzer that delivers the power spectral density (PSD) values to the radio monitoring system. The channel segmentation is the initial step of a comprehensive signal analysis in a radio monitoring system based on the PSD values. In this paper, a novel approach for channel segmentation is presented that is based on a quantization and a histogram evaluation of the measured PSD. It will be shown that only the combination of both evaluations will lead to an successful automatic channel segmentation. The performance of the proposed algorithm is shown in a real radio monitoring szenario.
Die Erfindung betrifft ein Verfahren zur automatischen Klassifikation des Modulationsformats eines digital modulierten Signals, welches die empfangenen I/Q-Datenpunkte zuerst für jedes Modulationsformat mittels eines Clustering-Verfahrens ausgewertet, wobei nach Durchführung des Clustering-Verfahrens für jedes der Modulationsformate jeweils alle I/Q-Datenpunkte jeweils einem ermittelten Cluster-Schwerpunkt zugeordnet sind. Danach wird für jedes Modulationsformat jeweils der Wert einer Nutzenfunktion bestimmt, welche einen umso höheren (niedrigeren) Wert annimmt, je besser die einem Cluster-Schwerpunkt zugeordneten I/Q-Datenpunkte durch den Cluster-Schwerpunkt abgedeckt sind und je geringer die euklidischen Abstände der ermittelten Custer-Schwerpunkte von dem zugeordneten Konstellationspunkt sind. Es wird dann dasjenige Modulationsformat als das für das digital modulierte Signal zutreffende Modulationsformat angenommen, für welche die Nutzenfunktion den höchsten (niedrigsten) Wert annimmt.