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High-tech running shoes and spikes ("super-footwear") are currently being debated in sports. There is direct evidence that distance running super shoes improve running economy; however, it is not well established to which extent world-class performances are affected over the range of track and road running events.
This study examined publicly available performance datasets of annual best track and road performances for evidence of potential systematic performance effects following the introduction of super footwear. The analysis was based on the 100 best performances per year for men and women in outdoor events from 2010 to 2022, provided by the world governing body of athletics (World Athletics).
We found evidence of progressing improvements in track and road running performances after the introduction of super distance running shoes in 2016 and super spike technology in 2019. This evidence is more pronounced for distances longer than 1500 m in women and longer than 5000 m in men. Women seem to benefit more from super footwear in distance running events than men.
While the observational study design limits causal inference, this study provides a database on potential systematic performance effects following the introduction of super shoes/spikes in track and road running events in world-class athletes. Further research is needed to examine the underlying mechanisms and, in particular, potential sex differences in the performance effects of super footwear.
Objective: To identify and evaluate the evidence of the most relevant running-related risk factors (RRRFs) for running-related overuse injuries (ROIs) and to suggest future research directions.
Design: Systematic review considering prospective and retrospective studies. (PROSPERO_ID: 236832)
Data sources: Pubmed. Connected Papers. The search was performed in February 2021.
Eligibility criteria: English language. Studies on participants whose primary sport is running addressing the risk for the seven most common ROIs and at least one kinematic, kinetic (including pressure measurements), or electromyographic RRRF. An RRRF needed to be identified in at least one prospective or two retrospective studies.
Results: Sixty-two articles fulfilled our eligibility criteria. Levels of evidence for specific ROIs ranged from conflicting to moderate evidence. Running populations and methods applied varied considerably between studies. While some RRRFs appeared for several ROIs, most RRRFs were specific for a particular ROI. The biomechanical measurements performed in many studies would have allowed for consideration of many more RRRFs than have been reported, highlighting a potential for more effective data usage in the future.
Conclusion: This study offers a comprehensive overview of RRRFs for the most common ROIs, which might serve as a starting point to develop ROI-specific risk profiles of individual runners. Future work should use macroscopic (big data) approaches involving long-term data collections in the real world and microscopic approaches involving precise stress calculations using recent developments in biomechanical modelling. However, consensus on data collection standards (including the quantification of workload and stress tolerance variables and the reporting of injuries) is warranted.
Running shoes were categorized either as motion control, cushioned, or minimal footwear in the past. Today, these categories blur and are not as clearly defined. Moreover, with the advances in manufacturing processes, it is possible to create individualized running shoes that incorporate features that meet individual biomechanical and experiential needs. However, specific ways to individualize footwear to reduce individual injury risk are poorly understood. Therefore, the purpose of this scoping review was to provide an overview of (1) footwear design features that have the potential for individualization; (2) human biomechanical variability as a theoretical foundation for individualization; (3) the literature on the differential responses to footwear design features between selected groups of individuals. These purposes focus exclusively on reducing running-related risk factors for overuse injuries. We included studies in the English language on adults that analyzed: (1) potential interaction effects between footwear design features and subgroups of runners or covariates (e.g., age, gender) for running-related biomechanical risk factors or injury incidences; (2) footwear perception for a systematically modified footwear design feature. Most of the included articles (n = 107) analyzed male runners. Several footwear design features (e.g., midsole characteristics, upper, outsole profile) show potential for individualization. However, the overall body of literature addressing individualized footwear solutions and the potential to reduce biomechanical risk factors is limited. Future studies should leverage more extensive data collections considering relevant covariates and subgroups while systematically modifying isolated footwear design features to inform footwear individualization.